Introduction

The use of criminal law, as the most coercive means available to the state (or other entities bearing ius puniendi) to shape individual behaviour, must be accompanied by one question: what is its purpose? What function should criminal law serve? In short, what legitimises the state’s restriction of the most fundamental rights of the individuals who make up its…

Recognition is one of the most decisive yet contentious acts in international law. It determines who participates in the international system as a legitimate sovereign state. In theory, the criteria for statehood are well-defined under the Montevideo Convention of 1933, which lists a permanent population, defined territory, effective government, and capacity to enter relations with other states as the key…

International law is often described as one of the most paradoxical concepts of law, where one state agrees while another state contradicts. Nations rarely reach a common consensus on fundamentals related to international law. Whether it constitutes as true law or when a political entity should be recognised as state. This disagreement is mostly derived out of the desire for…

The digital advertising ecosystem today uses sophisticated data analytics and AI to target consumers far more precisely than traditional one-way media. Platforms like Google and social networks collect demographics and behavior to tailor ads and measure ROI. However, this precision comes at a cost – automated “bots” now generate about half of all internet traffic. Many bots are benign (search…

The notion of formal recognition within the international system is viewed as a formal acknowledgement for an entity to qualify as a state. Sudan and Palestine demonstrate contrasting dimensions of the recognition politics. Sudan is fully recognised as a sovereign state, and the state recognition remains largely unaffected despite extensive documentation of atrocities in the ongoing conflict.[i] In contrast,…

States are considered the primary legal entities and subjects of international law with the power and capacity to make treaties, however they can still make agreements with non-state entities, such as NSAGs, international organizations, individuals and people who acquire legal personalities and struggle for equal rights. The legal status of non-state armed groups (NSAGs) in International law is a critical…